The Mishnah Begins: Debate and Daily Practice

m. Berakhot 1:1–5

70–220

1. From what time does one recite the Shema‘ in the evening?

From the hour when the priests enter [their homes] to eat their priest’s due, until the end of the first watch; the words of R. Eliezer.

And the sages say: Until midnight.

Rabban Gamaliel says: Until the dawn comes up. [ . . . ]

2. From what time does one recite the Shema‘ in the morning…

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The Mishnah, the foundational text of rabbinic literature, begins not with a story but with a question: “From when may one recite the Shema‘ in the evening?” Rather than providing a single answer, it presents multiple opinions, setting the multivocal, practical, and debate-centered tone that is characteristic of rabbinic texts. This approach reflects the rabbinic project of reshaping Jewish life after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, focusing on study, law, and interpretation. One of the oldest rituals discussed in the Mishnah is the twice-daily recitation of the Shema‘ (Deuteronomy 6:4–9, 11:13–21, and Numbers 15:37–41). This practice, which may predate the Temple’s destruction, derives from the call to meditate daily on “these words” (Deuteronomy 6:6), in the morning and evening. Characteristically, the rabbis framed the recitation of these passages with blessings that expanded on their themes and significance. The legal texts in the Mishnah elaborate on this practice, detailing the structure and some of the content of these blessings. Early versions of these blessings, as they were recited in the land of Israel, can be found in manuscripts from the Cairo Geniza.