Bar Kokhba Letters and Archaeology

Whereas the events of the First Jewish Revolt are amply recounted in Josephus’ lengthy testimony, no equivalent source exists for the Bar Kokhba revolt. Extensive archaeological and material evidence help to fill in the historical record. The evidence reveals information on the causes of the revolt, on Roman military tactics, and on the ideology of the rebels, among other things. The most celebrated discoveries are a series of caves in the Judean desert where Jewish families from villages around the Dead Sea basin sought refuge and hid their precious belongings. Of particular significance is the so-called Cave of Letters, in which pottery, luxurious glass and bronze vessels, wooden vessels, medicinal and cosmetic utensils, mirrors, personal items, keys, basketry, pieces of clothing, hairnets, sandals, coins, and papyri were discovered. Similar finds were retrieved from other caves in Naḥal Ḥever, Naḥal Se’elim, Naḥal David, Wadi Murabba‘at, and Jericho. Some of the caves had built-in features such as pools. In others, such as the place known as the Cave of Horror, human remains were found. Traces of Roman camps were also discovered in the cliffs above some caves.

The Bar Kokhba caves are significant mainly because they are effectively time capsules. That is, they preserve a snapshot of the material culture and daily life of early second-century CE Judaea. The leather scrolls and papyri—which comprise biblical books and documentary texts—are crucial for the history of the textual transmission of the biblical texts and the historical background of the revolt, respectively. Among the documentary texts are letters written by Bar Kokhba himself, as well as deeds of sale, contracts, tax receipts, and divorce papers. This evidence goes a long way toward filling some of the lacunae resulting from the dearth of historical sources about the revolt. It is also important for an understanding of socioeconomic life in the late first and early second centuries CE. Babatha’s archive, a collection of documents also found in the caves and belonging to a woman of that name, is particularly pertinent for hearing the voice of Jewish women in this period. (See Family and Inheritance and Marriage.) Information on the ideology behind the revolt can be garnered from the coins minted by the Jewish rebels.

In addition to these caves, in recent years much evidence has been unearthed in excavations throughout Judaea and in the region of Hebron, where many settlements—some established after the first century BCE, others right after the First Jewish Revolt—have been identified. Many of these settlements—some of which include underground hiding complexes in their vicinity—were destroyed during the Bar Kokhba revolt and thus join the evidence from the caves in the Judean desert to provide important information about Jewish daily life and settlements during the period between the two revolts. The archaeological evidence indicates high levels of cultural continuity between the pre- and post-70 CE periods. With few exceptions—such as the introduction of the so-called Darom lamps—earlier pottery types continue into the late first and early second centuries CE. Chalkstone vessels remain in production and have been found in both settlement sites and refuge caves. Free-blown glass becomes even more common, and new vessel types are also introduced. Because there are both changes and major continuities, 70 CE should not be perceived as a cultural watershed.