Descriptions of the Essenes

Josephus describes the Essenes as most concerned with the pursuit of righteousness even as they are devoted to agriculture and leave everything to fate. They are ascetic and celibate, and maintain common property. They live in towns and strictly regulate their lives, praying regularly and making handicrafts. They feed the hungry, avoid oaths, and are fascinated by the writings of the ancients. Recruits are required to pass a battery of tests to be considered full members, and insubordination is punished by expulsion. Essenes revere Mosaic law and are a hierarchical sect that gladly endures persecution. They deem the soul eternal, and many are blessed with the gift of prophecy. Some Essene schismatics reject the doctrine of celibacy, but only for procreative purposes.

Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE) describes a solitary settlement he identifies as Essene on the western side of the Dead Sea. This group, he claims, contains no women and has rejected human sexuality. Despite members’ refusal to procreate, the community is constantly renewed by acolytes who, tired of life, seek to join the enclave. This brief description has been a key piece of evidence in the dispute over the identity of the people of Qumran, who produced the Dead Sea Scrolls. Since Pliny’s geographic placement of this settlement and his description of some of its practices fit nicely with what we know about Qumran, this source argues strongly that the Qumran community was Essene.

Philo (ca. 20 BCE–50 CE) also offers a description of the Essenes, whose population he estimates at four thousand. They live in isolated communities and reject ritual sacrifice as well as monetary and material gain. They are pacifists and reject commerce and slavery, dedicating themselves to ethics, piety, and religious study. They observe the Sabbath strictly. Philo summarizes their main tenets as love of God, love of virtue, and love of men. They practice a form of communalism in which all funds are held in a single treasury and meals are taken publicly, thus providing for the poor of the community.

Philo’s description of the Essenes is similar to Josephus’ and Pliny’s, but it does not make any mention of celibacy.