Torah Finials (Amsterdam)

International trade drove Jewish mobility during the age of mercantilism, as Jewish merchants formed wide commercial networks and partnerships and developed cosmopolitan attitudes that facilitated civic inclusion.

Baruch Spinoza is notable for rejecting Judaism without converting to Christianity. After his excommunication from Amsterdam's Sephardic community, he developed the basis of modern biblical criticism.

The early modern period featured educational reforms, anti-Christian polemics, and growing Jewish university participation.