Torah Finials (Amsterdam)
Pieter van Hoven
17th or 18th Century

Creator Bio
Pieter van Hoven
Silversmith Pieter van Hoven was born in Amsterdam, in the Netherlands. He produced many ceremonial objects for the Jewish community of Amsterdam in the early eighteenth century.
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Early Modern Trade and Mercantilism (1500–1750)
International trade drove Jewish mobility during the age of mercantilism, as Jewish merchants formed wide commercial networks and partnerships and developed cosmopolitan attitudes that facilitated civic inclusion.
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Spinoza and the Heterodox Challenge
Baruch Spinoza is notable for rejecting Judaism without converting to Christianity. After his excommunication from Amsterdam's Sephardic community, he developed the basis of modern biblical criticism.
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The early modern period featured educational reforms, anti-Christian polemics, and growing Jewish university participation.
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