Treatise on the Nature of the Soul: Substance and Accident

Know that when the philosophers divided all existing things in the world into substance and accident, they defined substance as that which exists in and of itself, [capable of] containing opposite [qualities] in itself. They defined accident as that which inheres in substance not as a part of it, and which cannot exist apart from it. Consequently, they concluded that substance can be divided into physical and spiritual [parts]. The characteristic of the physical [part] is that it has extension in three dimensions, that is, length, width, and depth, and is contained within a finite space. It is particular to a place. It is enclosed by its surfaces, and incapable of sharing the same place [simultaneously] with another [body]. It is impossible for opposing forms to inhere within it, in the same state. Its potential to receive those accidents that benefit it [up to a point] is limited. When it reaches the end of its receptivity, its ability to receive [more of] that particular accident terminates.

Regarding the character of the spiritual, behold, it has no extension in space. A specific place is not designated for it among existing things. Another [thing] does not prevent it from [occupying] the same place. It flows through physical substance as a ray [of light] flows through crystal. Opposite forms inhere within it, in the same state. [And] its capacity to accept those accidents which benefit it has no limit. Its relation to one form is not distinguishable from another. Rather, it has the same relation to all forms, that is, it can accept all forms, whether physical or spiritual.

But to the minds of the philosophers, it seemed necessary to establish the spiritual substance over the physical substance, because they were convinced that knowledge and ignorance are two opposing accidents, and that they do not exist in physical bodies, qua physical bodies. But as for their existence, substance is prepared for their coming upon it in succession. For that which receives these two opposites, that is, knowledge and ignorance, can never be a physical substance. And the reception of knowledge can never be restricted to a limit, beyond which there is no increase. Rather, insofar as a person strives in his desire to increase it [i.e., knowledge], thus does he gain in his ability [to achieve] it. Hence, of necessity, the recipient of knowledge becomes infinitely capable [i.e., of accepting further knowledge], because knowledge [itself] is infinite. And, of necessity, physical substance cannot receive knowledge or [even] a basis for its existence. That which can receive it and serve as a place for it must be a nonphysical substance. And that which accords with this principle is that which we call “spiritual.” To this we attribute knowledge and ignorance, virtue and wickedness. So, in accordance with this principle, behold, substance divides into two components: physical substance, [along] with the accidents attendant on its physicality [and spiritual substance, (along) with the accidents attendant on its spirituality].

There are nine categories of accidents [in] physical substance. They are: Quantity. Quality. Relation. Time. Place. Having. Location. Acting. Being Acted Upon. These nine categories are elucidated at length in the treatises on logic we have summarized. We shall refer to these as needed regarding the category of quality, in this context. Now, quality contains all colors, all odors, all sounds, and sensible things that are within the purview of the five senses; also, all known motions of physical bodies. There are six types of physical motion: Generation. Corruption. Increase. Diminution. Change in Place. And Alteration. That is all we need to know for now regarding the accidents pertaining to physical substance.

Regarding the accidents pertaining to spiritual substance, behold, they are: Knowledge. Ignorance. Virtue. Vice. For example: fear of God, adultery, and the like. Now, physical substance is that which is subject to corruption, and for which its accidents are corrupted along with it. But the substance of the soul is that which endures, and that which sustains its accidents [along with it]. Four virtues constitute the sum of essential accidents in the substance of the soul: the virtue of wisdom, which is the virtue of the rational soul; [the virtue of] courage, this is the virtue of the animal soul; [the virtue of] purity, this is the virtue of the vegetative soul. Now, if these three virtues are balanced in the three souls, the result of their balance [shikul] would be the virtue of justice [shikul]. And that makes four.

It is commonly presumed by adherents to a certain school of thought and those who side with them that the opposite of these four virtues result by means of their absence, that is, they [their opposites] do not exist in and of themselves. For example: ignorance is the absence of wisdom; cowardice is the absence of courage; lust is the absence of purity; and oppression is the absence of justice. So, the absence of the four virtues constitutes the existence of the four vices. But according to the opinion of another school, the vices [actually] exist as something opposed to those virtues; they are not [mere] “absence.” Because “absence” is not a thing that exists. Rather, the Lord created all things, and He created their opposites so that they should be understood and known through the existence of their opposites. Otherwise, [existing] things would not be known, in that they could not be distinguished from that to which they were compared. Solomon clarified this thing when he said: God made the one as well as the other (Ecclesiastes 7:14). His statement “the one as well as the other” means the comparison of [existing] things with their opposites. Now, these matters have been thoroughly explained by this [discussion].