The Sabbath in Early Judaism

Sabbath Observance as a Jewish Ethnic Marker

The injunction to observe the Sabbath by refraining from work every seventh day is mentioned repeatedly in the Bible (e.g., Exodus 20:8–11; 31:12–17; Leviticus 23:3). Like avoidance of pork and the practice of male circumcision, Sabbath observance was something “everyone” knew was a Jewish custom, a commonly acknowledged ethnic marker of Jews in the Greco-Roman world. It is mentioned frequently by pagan authors, both for praise (as a mark of philosophical piety) and for blame (as a sign of laziness), to which Philo responds. The rabbis extensively developed and elaborated on the biblical prohibition of work on the Sabbath, identifying the precise activities that constituted forbidden labor.

Then, as now, Jews refrained from work on that day. Josephus cites documents that indicate that Jews tried to avoid public official activity—like court appearances and tax payment—on the Sabbath. Aside from that, we do not know which specific actions were considered work for these purposes, at least not before 70 CE, when rabbis began to discuss the question. And even then, rabbis disagreed with one another. Moreover, it remains uncertain how many Jews would have followed their advice. The gospels are an early record of some kinds of Sabbath observance. 

Synagogue Worship and Community Study

What, then, aside from not working, did Sabbath observance consist of? Meals were celebrated, for one. Roman writers poked fun at the poor Jews’ fish dinners on the Sabbath eve, and rabbis would later require the expenditure of special effort for Sabbath meals, as also for dress. (It is worth remembering that relatively few people could afford to have more than one or two sets of clothes at a time.) And, by the first century, Sabbath observance might involve a visit to a synagogue, where, Josephus, Philo, and the New Testament agree, the holy books were read and studied and where, probably, some sort of prayer took place, although we have no idea about the contents of those prayers. But the larger point should not be lost behind all the details. Jews had developed a distinctive way of organizing time. We take the seven-day “week” for granted, but—before Christians took it over, only the Jews had the week.